Having restored peace and unity within Moslem territory, Muawiya was free to assume the religious obligation of military expansion incumbent upon a caliph.
The Arab invasions, which had come to a halt during the period of civil strife in the caliphates of Othman and Ali, were renewed by Muawiya on land and sea, to the north, east, and west, with such spectacular success that a new era of Moslem Arab conquest was established.
To the east, Muawiya sent an expedition into the northeastern province of Persia—Khurasan—which, once conquered, was used as a base for raids across the Oxus River into Transoxiana. To the west, Muawiya's governor in Egypt sent an expedition under the famous conqueror Uqba ibn Nafi against North Africa which penetrated Byzantine defenses as far west as Algeria.
It is significant, however, that these advances into Algeria and Transoxiana, at the eastern and western extremities of Muawiya's campaign, were not consolidated by Moslem occupation and were not finally conquered for Islam until later in the Umayyad dynasty. To the north, in addition to annual raids against Byzantine frontier holdings in Asia Minor, which served to keep the tribal armies in fighting trim, Muawiya launched two unsuccessful attacks against Constantinople itself; the first was led by his son Yazid, and the second took the form of a naval campaign fought intermittently over a period of seven years A full account of his reign is in Philip K.
All rights reserved. Building a Power Base As a result of his military exploits, Muawiya was awarded the governorship of Damascus and, under the caliph Omar, became governor over all Syria, in which capacity he served for 20 years. Struggle for the Caliphate The second significant phase of Muawiya's career began in with the murder of the caliph Othman by rebels from Egypt and Iraq who resented the favoritism shown by Othman toward his Umayyad kinsmen.
Further Conquests Having restored peace and unity within Moslem territory, Muawiya was free to assume the religious obligation of military expansion incumbent upon a caliph. Because of this, Mu'awiyah saw Ali as an accomplice and did not want to acknowledge Ali's rule. Their troops confronted each other in the Battle of Siffin in , which was finally resolved by negotiations.
These negotiations made Ali's claim to the caliphate dubious and some of his supporters broke away into a group known as the Kharijites.
The Kharijite rebellion against Ali culminated in his assassination in At the time, Mu'awiyah already controlled Syria and Egypt, and with the largest force in the Muslim realm, he laid the strongest claim on the caliphate. Muawiyah was crowned as caliph at a ceremony in Jerusalem in He came to Madina and spoke to the people, saying, "I desired the way followed by Abu Bakr and 'Umar, but I was unable to follow it, and so I have followed a course with you which contains fortune and benefits for you despite some bias, so be pleased with what comes to you from me even if it is little.
When good is continuous, even if it is little, it enriches. Discontent makes life grim. He also said in an address which he delivered to the people, "O people! By Allah, it is easier to move the firm mountains than to follow Abu Bakr and 'Umar in their behaviour. But I have followed their way of conduct falling short of those before me, but none after me will equal me in it.
Ali's caliphate lasted for around 4 years. After the treaty with Ali's son Hassan , Muawiyah ruled for nearly 20 years most of which were spent expanding the state. After the peace treaty with Hasan , Muawiyah turned his attention back to the Romans. In , Umayyad naval and army forces under the command of Muawiyah's son, Yazid ibn Muawiyah , [48] laid siege to the Byzantine capital of Constantinople , [49] but were defeated when the Byzantines introduced Greek fire to the naval battlefield.
The Mosque of Uqba , in Kairouan, Tunisia. Further west, the Umayyads were keenly aware of Sicily's strategic importance and Muawiya was the first caliph to begin raiding the island in It was used both as a base for military operations and as an administrative centre for north Africa, replacing Carthage. Later Umar formalized the welfare state Bayt al-mal.
The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced child benefit and pensions for the children and the elderly. Both Ali and Muawiyah continued the welfare state. Ali was extremely caring towards the poor and when he became caliph the revenue from the land of Fadak continued to go towards the poor.
Because of Muawiyah's families previous opposition to the Muslims, before they converted to Islam, there was still some level of resentment towards him. Some of his relatives had been killed in battles fighting against the Muslims. But Muawiyah felt that after his conversion to Islam, for over 20 years, he had been the governor of Syria and expanded the state, confronted the Romans, built up a good administration, a good economy and therefore felt that people should not resent his past.
On one occasion, Mu'awiya ascended the minbar and praised Allah. When he wanted to speak, a lad of the Ansar interrupted him and said, "Mu'awiya! What makes you and the people of your house more entitled to this wealth than us! We have no wrong action against you that we know of other than our slaying of your uncle Walid, your grandfather 'Uqba, and your brother Hanzala. Rather Allah killed them with angels upon angels at the hands of the sons of their father.
That was not a fault nor a loss. Do you need something? I look after an old woman and sisters and things have been hard on us. Muawiyah governed the geographically and politically disparate caliphate, which now spread from north Africa in the west to Afghanistan in the east, by strengthening the power of his allies in the newly conquered territories. Prominent positions in the emerging governmental structures were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments.
The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious tolerance that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, especially in Syria itself. This policy also boosted his popularity and solidified Syria as his power base. Muawiyah is reported to have said: "I observed the Messenger of Allah perform Wudhoo ablution and when he finished, he looked at me and said; 'O Muawiyah!
If you get to rule then fear Allah and be just to the people. Muawiyah even restored Edessa's cathedral after it had been toppled by an earthquake. Justice flourished in his time, and there was great peace in the regions under his control. He allowed everyone to live as they wanted. In a manner similar to Byzantine administrative practices, Muawiyah instituted several bureaucracies, called divans , to aid him in the governance and the centralization of the caliphate and the empire.
Early Arabic sources credit two diwan s in particular to Muawiyah: the Diwan al-Khatam chancellery and the Barid postal service , both of which greatly improved communications within the empire. Mu'awiya could be seen speaking to the people on the minbar of Damascus wearing a patched garment. Yunus ibn Maysar al-Himyari said, "I saw Mu'awiya riding in the Damascus market wearing a shirt with a patched pocket, going along in the Damascus markets. Muawiyah was very skilled at dealing with the Romans.
Abdullah ibn Zubayr, who could see troubles ahead after the death of Muawiyah and was opposed to the appointment of Yazid, later said of Muawiyah: "Truly the son of Hind deployed a dexterity and mental resourcefulness as one will never see after him. When we tried to impose something on him, an irritated lion with claws unsheathed would not show more audacity than him. He knew when to give into us, to even allow himself to be tricked when we tried to do that to him.
He was the most artful of men, more crafty than a thief. I wished that we would never lose him, just as a rock remaining on this summit" pointing to the mountain of Abu Qubays outside Mekka. When his friends expressed surprise at the vastness of his gifts to his opponents, he told them "a war costs infinitely more".
Muawiya was welcome to his subjects at every hour of the day, including mealtimes. Muawiya and his governors maintained an open table for people to come in and eat. Once an Arab seated at the end of the room did not hesitate to pull to himself a plate which had been placed in front of Muawiya.
So Muawiyah said "You plunder very far! The deliberations between Muawiyah and the people took place in the community mosque, where the people were free and unconstrained towards the khalif. Muawiya did not rely on the old aristocracy but looked for merit and loyalty.
Most of his prominent governors were not even Qurayshi let alone Umayyad. He also had the faculty of winning over and retaining people he distrusted like Amr ibn al As. At Tabri recounted: "Al-Mughira liked things to run smoothly; he behaved well with the people and did not ask sectarians about their sect.
All he would say was "Allah has decreed that you will continue to disagree and Allah will judge between His creatures concerning that about which they disagree.
Until the Kharijites resorted to violence then the Kufas agreed to expel them. He also paid a lot of attention to the economy and agriculture; [78] this allowed him to finance his expeditions. I heard the Messenger of Allah saying: 'Whoever Allah entrusts with authority over the affairs of the Muslims and he neglects the needs and wants of the poor amongst them, Allah will neglect him and his needs and wants.
One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor.
Yazid was experienced militarily, after taking part in various expeditions and the siege of Constantinople but politically inexperienced. Marwan also wanted Yazid to be the caliph so that he could run things behind the scenes, as he would become the senior member of the Umayyad clan after Muawiyah's death.
Mohammad, Abu Bakr and Umar also mistrusted Marwan and he had lived in Taif during their rule, where he became friends with Hajjaj. Tom Holland writes "Tempers in Medina were not helped by the fact that the governor in the oasis was none other than the fabulously venal and slippery Marwan. Rumours abounded that it was he, back in the last calamitous days of Uthman's rule who had double crossed the war band that had come to Uthman.
The locals mistrust of their governor ran particularly deep. Nothing he had done had helped to improve his reputation for double dealing. Ibn Kathir wrote in his book Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah that "in the year 56 AH Muawiyah called on the people including those within the outlying territories to pledge allegiance to his son, Yazeed, to be his heir to the Caliphate after him.
Because of this Muawiyah passed through al-Madinah on his way back from Makkah upon completion of his Umrah Pilgrimage where he summoned each one of the five aforementioned individuals and threatened them. The speaker who addressed Muawiyah sharply with the greatest firmness amongst them was Abdurrahman bin Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq, while Abdullah bin Umar bin al-Khattab was the most soft spoken amongst them.
Muawiyah then delivered a sermon, having stood these five men below the pulpit in full view of the people after which the people pledged allegiance to Yazeed as they stood in silence without displaying their disagreement or opposition for fear of being humiliated. Muawiyah warned his son Yazid that Husayn, the younger brother of Hasan ibn Ali, would potentially be a problem for the dynasty. However, according to some sources, Muawiyah advised his son to act towards Husayn "gently".
According to a claim by a sunni source, Muawiyah warned Yazid against mistreating Husayn ibn Ali. Be careful not to confront him except in a good way. Extend to him a free hand [literally, a long rope ], and let him roam the earth as he pleases. Do not harm him, yet show him the thunder and lightning [of your anger].
Never confront him with the weapons of war but rather bestow on him generous gifts. Give him a place of honor near you and treat him with due reverence. Be careful O my son, that you do not meet God with his blood, lest you be among those that will perish" [84]. Muhammad bin Uqbah said that when death approached Muawiyah he said: "I wish I were an ordinary man from the Quraish living in Dhu Tuwa and that I had never been invested with authority as caliph" [85].
Muhammad bin Seereen said: "When Muawiyah was on the brink of death, he began to mark out the floor. Then he turned his face and marked out another spot on the floor, after which he started to cry and say: "O Allah!
Indeed, You said in Your Book "Verily, Allah forgives not that partners should be set up with Him in worship , but He forgives everything else to whom He wills" [an-Nisa ] Therefore, O Allah, make me amongst those You will forgive". Al-Utbi narrated from his father that when Muawiya was dying he quoted the following verses to those present in at-Taweel poetry "Death is inevitable because of what we are; consciousness of what lies after death is much more awful and lurid" Then he said: "O Allah!
Reduce my lapses, pardon the shortcomings and overlook my ignorance, for You are All Forgiving. My mistakes are all my own and not attributable to You; only You can forgive me and grant me refuge" [86]. It is reported that he passed out and once he regained consciousness, he said to his family: "Fear Allah, for verily He safeguards whoever shows regard for something for His sake and He does not safeguard whoever shows a disregard for something for His sake" and upon uttering this he died.
Robert Payne quotes Muawiyah in History of Islam as telling his son Yazid to defeat Hussein, who was surely preparing an army against him, but to deal with him gently thereafter as Hussein was a descendent of Muhammad; but to deal with Abdullah al-Zubair swiftly, as Muawiyah feared him the most. Muawiyah died on 26 April Muawiya used to bring water to Muhammad and it was in the course of this service that he received the shirt in which he was buried.
He said "Shall I not clothe you in a shirt? I said, "Yes indeed, by my father and mother! So he removed the shirt he had on and clothed me in it. By his creation of a fleet, Muawiyah was the driving force of the Muslim effort against Byzantium. His navy challenged the Byzantine navy and raided the Byzantine islands and coasts at will.
The shocking defeat of the imperial fleet by the young Muslim navy at the Battle of the Masts in was a critical turning point. It opened up the Mediterranean, considered a "Roman lake", and began a centuries-long series of naval conflicts over the control of the Mediterranean. This also allowed the expansion of the state into north Africa and Spain. Muawiyah greatly beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the very gates of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia.
Muawiyah had a personal library collection bayt al-hikmah [95] that was enlarged by his successors "throughout the Umayyad period.
Muawiyah had a few rare virtues. He was politically adept in dealing with the eastern Roman Empire and was therefore made into a secretary by Muhammad. Even the most stubborn of opponents would often melt under his generosity and diplomacy.
He also managed through fine diplomacy to balance out the tribal rivalries. During Mu'awiya's rule he put into practice the advice that Muhammad had given him, "When you rule, do it well. Divisions among humankind based on tribes, nations and race resurface time and again. The Banu Omayya, who were merchants and soldiers in pre-Islamic years, benefited enormously from the conquered gold of Persia. Bani Hashim, on the other hand, tried to keep the Islamic community focused on the rugged simplicity of Islam.
The third Caliph Uthman r was an Omayyad and a pious, shy, retiring aged man. The power of wealth asserted itself during his time and those who were in a position to exploit this wealth, namely the merchant-soldier class of Banu Omayya, did so. When Ali r , a Hashimite, tried to redirect the flow of history towards the pristine purity of Islam, faith collided with greed; the civil wars ensued pitting Banu Omayya against Bani Hashim.
The first phase of the civil wars ended with the triumph of the merchant-warrior and the abdication of the rule of faith. An era ended and a new era began.
The civil wars also gave birth to the Kharijites. Their position, though it was couched in democratic terms, was extremist. They sought to justify their misguided position that Ali r had compromised his faith.
They also maintained that the Caliphate should be open to any capable Muslim, not just the Quraish. Their methods were bloody and they let loose a merciless reign of terror, indiscriminately killing men, women and children.
Both Ali r and Muawiya waged war against them. Although defeated time and again, the Kharijites resurfaced in Islamic history as a recalcitrant group for five hundred years. In the 14 th century, they gave up their violent ways and settled down in North Africa. Some historians, among them the great Ibn Batuta who traveled through North Africa in , relate them to the Ibadis who are known for their devout poetry in praise of the Prophet.
The civil wars had arrested the explosive advance of the Muslim armies. With the civil wars at bay, the advance resumed. Muhlab bin Abi Safra captured the frontier areas of modern Pakistan. This exclamation captures in a nutshell the motivation for early Muslim conquests.
Faith was the propulsive force that provided this momentum. Islam had taught the Muslims that humankind was born into freedom and that a human ought to bow down before God and no one else.
The struggle of the early Muslims was to establish a world order wherein only the name of God was extolled and men and women were freed from bondage to false gods or tyrants who acted as if they were gods. The most memorable accomplishment of Emir Muawiya was the building of a strong navy to break the stranglehold of the Byzantine Empire in the eastern Mediterranean.
Rhodes and other islands in the eastern Mediterranean were captured and in , Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, was besieged.
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